Genetically-Modified-Organisms
Genetic engineering is the
manipulation of an organism’s genome through biotechnology. It
involves the mutation, insertion, or deletion of genes. Since the
first recombinant DNA molecules were produced in 1972, significant
progress has been made, resulting in a wide range of genetically
modified organisms (GMO), which includes microorganisms, plants,
and animals.
Even though bacteria were the first organisms to be genetically
altered, novel uses for this class of GMO never cease to be
discovered. This article will present recent breakthroughs in the
genetic engineering of microorganisms, particularly those that
represent promising answers to modern-day challenges. It will also
discuss the tax credit opportunity available for companies engaged
in developing innovative uses for genetically modified
organisms.
The Research & Development
Tax Credit
Enacted in 1981, the federal Research
and Development (R&D) Tax Credit allows a credit of up to 13%
of eligible spending for new and improved products and processes.
Qualified research must meet the following four criteria:
• New or improved products, processes, or
software
• Technological in nature
• Elimination of uncertainty
• Process of experimentation
Eligible costs include employee wages, cost of supplies, cost of
testing, contract research expenses, and costs associated with
developing a patent. On January 2, 2013, President Obama
signed the bill extending the R&D Tax Credit for 2012 and 2013
tax years.
Modified Reputation
For over a century, bacteria have
been surrounded by a notoriously bad reputation. The word itself
is frequently associated with diseases and contamination. Even
more so as recent research has proved the role of these
microorganisms in disorders such as stomach ulcers, heart attacks,
and strokes, not to mention the growing bacterial resistance to
antibiotics.
However, ongoing R&D efforts point towards a future where the
bad guys may become heroes. Novel developments in biotechnology,
particularly in the field of genetic engineering, have proved that
bacteria can be central to overcoming challenges facing
humankind.
The following paragraphs will present a few domains in which
innovative uses of genetically modified bacteria have recently
been developed.
Energy Generation
Despite governmental incentives, such
as the Congressional mandate requiring a determined amount of
biofuel to be blended into U.S. gasoline and diesel supplies, high
costs and increased carbon dioxide emissions have undermined
biofuels’ position as a real competitor to fossil fuels. This
unfavorable scenario, however, may be changing.
Using genetic engineering, UCLA researchers have altered the way
certain bacteria process sugar, increasing the amount of biofuel
that can be generated from sugar by 50 percent. The Benefits are
multiple: 1) Lower costs due to the reduced amount of corn or
biomass necessary to produce a gallon of biofuel; 2) Reduction of
land used to produce corn or biomass and consequent decrease of
CO2 emissions involved in farming; and 2) Reduction of greenhouse
gas emissions due to the optimization of carbon use during the
fermentation process.
While UCLA research focuses on boosting efficiency in the
production of biofuel from corn and biomass, the KTH Royal
Institute of Technology in Stockholm is working on an alternative
biofuel produced by cyanobacteria, also known as blue-green algae.
Using genetic engineering, Swedish researchers have altered the
algae’s natural metabolism. The modified genome “tricks” cells
into producing butanol, a hydrocarbon-like fuel for motor
vehicles.
Butanol production can allegedly be 20 times more efficient than
conventional biofuels. When considering corn ethanol, for
instance, the ability to produce fuel using genetically modified
cyanobacteria could be the answer to fluctuating costs of corn,
limited arable land availability, and high transportation costs.
More importantly, raw materials involved in the production of fuel
based on cyanobacteria are virtually infinite, namely, sunlight,
carbon dioxide, and seawater.
Significant R&D efforts are still necessary to make biofuel
from blue-green algae commercially available. According to Paul
Hudson, researcher at the School of Biotechnology at KTH, there
could be a decade before the necessary production improvements are
accomplished.
In South Korea, researchers have successfully used genetically
modified E. coli bacteria to produce gasoline. The process
consists of turning glucose or waste biomass directly into petrol,
eliminating intermediary steps. The resulting product is allegedly
identical to the commercially available fuel, both in structure
and chemical properties. Although considerable advances are still
necessary, particularly regarding scalability, we may one day be
driving around in bacteria-powered cars.
Innovative Materials and
Production Processes
Since 2007, Tepha Inc., a medical
device company from Cambridge, MA, has commercialized an
innovative suture made out of a polymer produced by genetically
modified bacteria. The polyester sutures can be the answer to the
long-lasting problem of reopening wounds due to the loss of suture
strength. Not only are they absorbable but they also constitute a
more flexible and far stronger alternative to conventional
sutures.
Based on compounds synthesized by genetically engineered E. coli
bacteria, Tepha’s suture was the first plastic of its kind to
receive FDA approval. While other materials often break down into
inflammatory compounds in the body, the polyester sutures do not
cause inflammation as they break down into biocompatible products.
R&D efforts are currently underway to apply the polymer to
other medical devices, such as stents, surgical meshes, and
multifilament fibers.
San Diego-based Genomatica Inc. has also been engaged in the
innovative use of genetically modified bacteria, particularly
bio-based chemical production. The company won the Materials
Category of the 2011 Wall Street Journal Technology Innovation
Award for the production of basic chemicals using bioengineered
microorganisms. Their ultimate objective is to conceive renewable
and cost-effective alternatives to fossil fuels used in
conventional chemical manufacturing, enabling a transition from
petroleum-based feedstocks to sustainable ones. The company
is currently working on the bio-based production of a range of
intermediate and basic chemicals, such as butanediol, butadiene,
and BDO.
Genomatica is also developing an innovative recycling technique
based on genetically engineered bacteria. The process consists of
breaking waste material into synthesis gas, a combination of
hydrogen and carbon monoxide, which is then processed by
genetically modified microbes. The resulting waste would contain
useful chemicals that can eventually substitute petroleum in
plastic manufacturing. While converting garbage into plastic would
be a huge step into reducing dependence on oil, the scalability
and profitability of this project remain to be proved.
A recent doctoral study at the Aalto University in Finland
demonstrated that genetically modified bacteria could also be
efficient producers of rare sugars. Used as low-calorie sweeteners
and as precursors of anti-cancer and antiviral medicines, rare
sugars have gained importance despite high production costs. With
the help of gene technology, Finnish scientists were able to use
engineered bacteria to generate the enzymes necessary to produce
three rare sugars, namely, xylitol, l-xylulose and l-xylose.
Initial results were promising, particularly regarding process
efficiency and simplification.
Health
Genetically engineered bacteria can
also become heroes of the medical world. A recent effort from the
Nanyang Technological University in Singapore resulted in the
creation of modified E. coli bacteria capable of seeking out and
destroying cells of P. aeruginosa, the microbe behind many
illnesses, including pneumonia.
For now, tests have only been run on mice, however, results are
highly promising particularly when it comes to the accuracy of
genetically engineered E. coli. which, contrary to most
conventional antibiotics, do not kill pathogenic microbes and
beneficial bacteria indiscriminately. Moreover, the novel
genetically constructed substance is particularly effective due to
its ability to break continuous sheets of bacteria, known as
biofilms. R&D efforts are underway to expand targeting ability
beyond P. aeruginosa and, most importantly, to turn this
innovative approach into deployable medicine.
Environment
Oil spills have caused the
degradation of numerous ecosystems, particularly marine ones.
Cleanup and recovery remain challenging and can take weeks,
months, or even years. In many cases, bioremediation has been
considered the ultimate response to such disasters. Alcanivorax
borkumensis, for instance, is a commonly used oil-degrading
bacterium.
Genetic modifications could open the way to more efficient
responses to oil spills. For decades, R&D efforts have sought
ways to genetically enhance microbes’ ability to process oil
spills, whether in land or sea. Although expectations are high,
further research is necessary to demonstrate the superiority of
engineered organisms over naturally occurring ones.
Engineered bacteria have also shown promise in the control of
herbicides, as demonstrated by a group of scientists from Georgia.
The target: atrazine, a controversial herbicide commonly used on
cornfields and sugar plantations. Prohibited in Europe, it is one
of the contaminants most frequently found in U.S. water. The
weapon: genetically modified E. coli bacteria capable of
detecting, pursuing, and neutralizing the herbicide. Although it
may take time before the atrazine-hunting bacteria becomes
commercially available, this project points to a future where
seek-and-destroy microbes may be created to tackle different
environmental contaminants.
Conclusion
In times where superbugs
threaten the world with unprecedented resistance to drugs, it is
somewhat difficult to picture bacteria as the “good guys”.
Nonetheless, ongoing R&D efforts have demonstrated the crucial
role such microorganisms can play in solving the problems facing
humankind. Genetic engineering has enabled the creation of
innovative approaches to a wide range of challenges, from energy
generation to medicine. Companies engaging in the development of
novel uses for genetically modified organisms may be entitled to
significant R&D tax credits.
